Reflection Post: The Aftermath of War

When one enters a war, one doesn’t really think of what happens after. How many people will be left without parents, the poverty, the psychological damage to the people involved in the war, and how it affects the world as a whole. Professor Vo explained that the Vietnam War for example was a war between democracy and communism fought with the Vietnamese as their soldiers, but the surrounding countries should have been safe from this war since it was supposed to be contained in Vietnam. However, this war is what started the horrors of the Cambodian genocide. No one thinks of the effects of war, but every cause has an effect.

 

The aftermath of this war still isn’t over, many Cambodians are being deported from the U.S back to Cambodia. Nearly 16,000 Southeast Asians have been deported since 1998, because of the  Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) which has a wide set of crimes that can be used as a means of deportation. This is problem for immigrants of Cambodia because they escaped war making them emotionally damaged and prone to violence. This was the case for Ched Nin, who was a Cambodian refugee that has now lived in Minnesota since he was 6. He lives here legally but he was arrested for assault and imprisoned for two years making him susceptible for deportation. He has already served his time, but he is still in the process of being deported. He has a family and a sick father and daughter that depend on him, but he won’t be able to help them if deported to a country he hadn’t step foot in since he was born in a refugee camp in Thailand. Chad Nin’s case is like that of many, of the 16,000 that were deported 78% were deported because of crimes they already served their time for.

This is an example of the many effects of empire and war, and one of the many things that I learned in the course of Humanities Core. I learned so much history that really opened my eyes. I was one to say that history was my least favorite subject because I am bad at remembering dates, but that is not all of history. I have leaned about the Roman empire, the Incan empire, Shakespeare, Rousseau, race, paintings, film, and even how past empires and roles affect today. When we were first asked to define empire, I thought of ruins like those of the Mayans. Now when I think of empire, I can’t bring myself to come up with a definition because there are so many aspects of empire. I think of the roles made within each different empire, the ruins of fallen empires, and the empires of today. Empire is ever-changing and can’t be defined into a simple definition because past empires have shaped the empire we have built for ourselves. I am truly glad to have taken this course because I feel that I have leaned so much about the world today by looking at the past, it is true that history repeats itself and we need to learn about it to be sure not to commit the same mistakes. Hopefully our empire will resist ruin.

Sources:

Lee, Esther Yu Hsi. “The quiet deportation of Cambodian refugees you haven’t heard about.” ThinkProgress. ThinkProgress, 17 Oct. 2016. Web. 30 May 2017.

Vo. “The AfterLives of Empire”.  10 May 2017, Biological Sciences III, Irvine, CA

Word Count: 566

 

 

Photographs Are Weapons

Professor Vo brought up the idea of photographs being weapons through the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War was the first televised war, called the “living room war”. There were also reporters would take photographs along side the soldiers to get powerful images of the live war. These images of war were seen daily, and made many protest the war. They saw the blood, lifeless children, and destruction that they couldn’t bear to support the war. The images they saw were the weapons needed to stop the war.

Images are powerful, and they tell story. For that reason many say that a picture is worth a thousand words, because they show what words cannot say. This has been proven by many photographs of wars, and protests shown over the years. Photos are the way to get people talking, to raise awareness, and to bring action.

Recently, Flint, Michigan’s water has been contaminated with eroded pipelines causing high levels of lead and bacteria. This became a widely covered story for news across the United States, and images of this sickly brown water is what brought attention to it. LeeAnne Walters  a mother from Flint took pictures of water that she collected from her tap. These images are what prompted others to help Flint in their water crisis. The news showed pictures of the water, rashes that people broke out in from taking showers in the contaminated water, and the protests for clean safe water. It took over a year for Flint, Michigan to get the government to finally take action that approved the 28 million that will be needed to repair the water pipes and finally get the residents their clean water. Although the government has approved to change the water pipes of Flint, this is going to take a couple of years and there is still much to be done for clean drinking water in the meantime. I will be including this link for those who have a couple of dollars to spare for clean water for Flint residents.

The images of murky water are what helped bring the government to action in Flint, and the images of the Vietnam War helped to protest the war. It is proved time and time again that pictures are truly powerful and help raise awareness about tragic issues that need the help of others to put them to an end. Photographs are weapons against war and tragedy, and a way to document our lives.

Word Count: 409

Source

Vo. “Imperialism, Interventions, and Vietnam”.  1 May 2017, Biological Sciences III, Irvine, CA

Over Sexualization

The sexualization of people has been around for many years, and has proved itself to be an enormous problem that needs to be acknowledged and addressed. Through sexualizing a group of people, they become belittled, shameful, and dehumanized. National Geographic, colonizers in America, and even Carls Jr commercials show just how this sexualization is overlooked, and how impactful it is on people’s lives. National Geographic used to be a perfect example of ethnographic voyeurism (gaining pleasure from watching and learning about other cultures), because it would show the topless African women. They would showcase these topless women as if that was a way of learning about the entirety of their culture, but in reality men were becoming aroused by looking at these images. As Professor Block explained, if a young boy were to have bought a National Geographic magazine then he would be able to do so without the repercussions of being a completely sexually explicit magazine, like Playboy, but he still gets the same content. This allowed the African women to become sexualized because they showed their breasts although it was part of their culture and not sexual to them in the slightest bit. Nevertheless., this sexualization of cultures is also what enabled colonizers to shame Native Americans.

Shame and modesty to describe the human body was created by colonizers. They expected the Native Americans to be covered from head to toe just as they were, and to have the same social expectations. Yet, they soon saw that they had much less clothing and body hair than they did. This allowed for them to see the Native American girls as promiscuous beings. When the Algonquian and the British encounters they had completely different views of each other (Professor Block). The British thought the Native Americans to have no modesty since they were nearly naked, but the Algonquians thought the British to be idiotic for wearing wool clothing in extremely hot weather. The natives were again seen as promiscuous for inviting them into their homes and having sexual relations, when to the Algonquians they were being exemplary hosts and doing them a favor which will later be returned. They have been sexualized for their culture and customs and judged for who they are.

Even today, women are being sexualized but at the same time being shamed for their sexuality. Carls Jr. has made many commercials where nearly naked women are eating their burgers and in these ridiculously sexual posses. They are using theses sexual images to appeal to the men watching these commercials to want to buy a burger. Because of this blatant sexualization of women, they are the ones who suffer the most from sexual assault.  They are belittled through these sexually charged images, and seen as objects of pleasure. The unwanted sexualization of people has to be acknowledged as a problem in our world in order to stop the justification of completely horrid acts.

Sources:

Block, Sharon. “Trans-Atlantic Slavery.”  5 April 2017, Biological Sciences III, Irvine, CA.

Block, Sharon. “Gender Frontiers.”  10 April 2017, Biological Sciences III, Irvine, CA.

Word Count: 509

Writing Against Empire

On March, 13 Professor Chaturvedi asked, “Is it possible to write histories that are not partners of Empire?” in other words, histories that are against empires. History are mostly written by the winners and not those that lost the battle. So, if one wants to write history against empire, then they must win the battle. Although it may seem like one has lost the battle, a history against empire can still linger in the shadows waiting for the empire to end, as was seen with Ranchod Vira’s letter.

The introduction of the letter by Chaturvedi explained that Ranchod Vira was a 50 year old peasant who worked the lands of Chaklasi, but on January 1898 he declared the end of the British rule in India. With this declaration, he then branded himself king of his new empire. Vira was illiterate, but this did not stop him from gathering followers to take back India. Soon after, he had up to 600 followers willing to fight for their freedom, and they did (Chaturvedi, p.1). The introduction explains that the police came to stop their uprising, and Police Inspector Jagannath tried to meet with Vira to talk calmly about stopping his followers. Ranchod Vira declined his talk, and instead asked for him to write him a letter about his concerns. Even though Vira couldn’t read or write, he knew that letters hold power and are histories on their own (Chaturvedi, p.2). The inspector declined his request and this is what sparked the battle. Although the battle lasted only a few hours before being stopped by the police and  Ranchod Vira was killed, this wasn’t the last of him.

Ranchod Vira was aware of the importance of writing and how language is used against empire. When he asked the inspector for a letter, Vira knew that this was how formal communications occurred between states; this use of writing legitimized Vira as a king (Chaturvedi, p.2). And, even after his death Vira’s letter from 1898 circulated and declared India’s independence long before the British empire was out of India. This letter circulated around parts of India that were not expected, and inspired others to write their own letters to discuss their concerns and ethics. Professor Chaturvedi found 120 letters similar to that of Ranchod Vira’s declaring their independence.

Although Ranchod Vira and his followers lost the battle, his letter is what circulated and kept his writings against empire alive. Even today, the tree where Vira wrote his letter is worshipped by others with shrines (Chaturvedi). They lost the battle, but in the end India freed themselves of the British empire. This letter wrote, before history took place, that the British would leave India. Ranchod Vira and the others that wrote the letters against empire show that it is possible to write against it, because writing is history in itself. When one writes their life and thoughts out in paper, it is immortalized as history that cannot be rewritten by the winners (re-writters of history). And, later these writings are used to show how empire will always fall.

Sources :

Chaturvedi. Humanities Core. University California Irvine, Irvine.13 March  2017. Lecture.

LETTER REGARDING THE TEMPLE OF RANCHODJI (Introductory Text by Vinayak Chaturvedi for Letter by Ranchod Vira)

 

Word Count:509

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Distorted Images

Professor Lewis first brought up the idea that “language is the partner of empire” on the eighth of February, and it really stuck me because it is very true. In Shakespeare’s The Tempest Caliban is taught Prospero’s language and he curses him for teaching him. Caliban hates that Prospero is able to give him a name, give commands, and present him with a new identity as his slave. Prospero used his language to control Caliban and enslave him. Similarly, the Spanish empire conquered the Incas and gave them new identities to dominate them. Once this new identity is given it is very difficult to shed.

In The Tempest and A Tempest (by Césaire), Caliban struggles with his name which was given to him by Prospero. Professor Lewis explains that Caliban despises his name because it sounds like cannibal, and it was given to him by his conqueror . With his name as Caliban, he is presented with an image of a wild animal like creature instead of a person who had his island taken away from him. Therefore, in A Tempest Caliban reclaims his name by changing it to X. He frees himself of the image that Prospero has tainted him with. With his new name, X is now free.

The indigenous Incan people also had to shed themselves of the distorted image that the Spanish gave them. The Spanish gave Incas an image of innocent barbarians unable to rule themselves without the guidance towards God (O’Toole). The Spanish presented them as helpless with a need to be guided, but once the Tupac Amaru rebellion came they saw them as savages. Either way, they needed to be colonized to be shed of their barbaric nature as was in the eyes of the Spanish. This image was very hard for the Incas to free themselves from, because they were seen like this for decades.

Martin Chambi and the indegenista movement had to come along to help change the image that the world had of the Incas. Instead of being paid to participate in images by other photographers, Chambi asked for their consent (O’Toole). He photographed them as intellectuals more than able to rule themselves, as mothers with happy children, and as the rightful owners of the Incan empire. This indegenista movement had to come along for the Incas to free themselves of the image that the Spanish gave them. The distorted image that the Spanish gave them was so powerfully overtaking that this movement was necessary for the Incas to reclaim themselves.

Now, immigrants and people of color have to free themselves of the image that was given to them over the course of hundreds of years and that was reinforced by Donald Trump. He   gave immigrants an image of being killers, rapists, and drug lords. This disgusting image was given to immigrants by scared racists unable to welcome change. Because of this image planted to immigrants, marches are erupting all over the US to reclaim their image. Immigrants are here looking for a future. They have families, and friends. Some have lived here their entire lives. They are here in the United States which is supposed to be a “melting pot”. Columbus was a killer and a rapist, yet he has his own holiday because he “discovered”this melting pot. Immigrants are here to stay and they are shedding this distorted image that racists have given them.

Sources:

Lewis.  Humanities Core. University California Irvine, Irvine.11 Jan 2017. Lecture.

O’Toole. Humanities Core. University California Irvine, Irvine.25 Jan 2017. Lecture.

Word Count: 564

Myths

The Inca empire was once located in the Andes of South America, and was a grand empire that stretched from Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, to Chile. Professor O’Toole explained that it consisted of about 12 million and was a fierce conquerer that others feared. Ruins from this immense empire still remain, although the brutal Spanish destroyed many of the cities. I didn’t know much about Incas, and all I knew was from disney movies and shows like The Emperor’s New Groove, The Emperor’s New School, and The Road to El Dorado. I remember watching Kuzco being turned into a llama on Saturday mornings, and seeing the protagonists of The Road to El Dorado being treated like gods as they entered the grand empire of the Incas. However, these movies incorporate myths that were started years before, and are still perpetuated in today’s culture.

I learned from the disney movies and history classes that the Incas believed that the Spanish were gods, but this was not true as Professor O’Toole explained in her lecture on January 11, 2017. This is the first myth that the Spanish told themselves in order to feel superior to the Incas. O’Toole explained that the Incas called the Spanish viracochas, which can be translated to not us or god. The Incas meant it as other, but this translation error caused the Spanish to think they were gods.. The Incas did not believe that the Spanish were superior, since they were rowdy and were only interested in taking the riches from the Incan empire. This leads into the next myth the Spanish told themselves as they looted the empire: the Spanish had exceptional weapons and technology compared to the Incas (O’Toole). Although, the Spanish had guns and horses these were not very useful in battle and the Incas instead preferred clubs and swords. And, they soon learned to make weapons of their own to defend their empire, and then started the resistance with Tupac Amaru leading their people. This proves the last myth, of the Incas not resisting the Spanish rule, to be false. In the end, thanks to smallpox and diseases brought by Europeans the Incan empire fell and Tupac Amaru was killed (O’Toole). The myths that the Spanish told themselves were used to see greater than those of the Incan empire, and with this superiority they granted themselves they were able to ruthlessly destroy their empire. The Spanish told themselves lies to destroy the Incan empire without mercy, and  assumptions and ignoring facts lead to these myths that people tell themselves.

These myth are still seen today, and passed off as fact. Although the myths have been proven to be false, their lies have influence over films and classrooms which misinforms youth. When I watched the movies of Spanish being gods I truly believed that and so do other. Myths are dangerous, because they are told time and time again in classrooms and movies long after they have been proven to be false. This leads those with false information to have the wrong histories and  keeps the false myths alive. It is necessary to inform children from a young age that not all of history taught in school, or movies is true but may just be a myth.

 

Sources:

O’Toole. “The Myths of Conquest”.  Humanities Core. University California Irvine, Irvine.11 Jan 2017. Lecture.

Word Count:557

Crossing the Borderlands (Blog Post 6)

As I look back to my blogposts, I see that my understanding of empire has grown. In the beginning, I thought empire to be endless power, and glory. Now, I see that empire can have be very dominant power, but this will come to an end one day. I see this through Memento Mori, and through the paintings of different artist (such as Thomas Cole), and the works of authors (like Jean-Jacques Rousseau) . They all claim that no matter how powerful an empire is, it will fall. In addition to the inevitable end of empire, I understand the two sides of it as well: the conquered and the conqueror. Although I am nowhere near to understanding either side completely, I have a deeper understanding of each. As professor Lazo would put it, I can see the borderlands a bit clearer.

Hugh Glass in The Revenant is an example of someone living in the borderlands. He is in a limbo of barbarian and civilized man. Because he has a family that are Native Americans, he himself has become part mestizo ( someone with mixed ancestry, neither one or the other). Yet, he works for an empire of fur,but he is seen as different from the empire because of his son, who is mixed. Glass is  judged by many for having a mestizo son, and this judgement is what causes Hawk’s death. Fitzgerald is the core of empire and corruption, and Glass needs revenge for murdering his son. Throughout the movie, his eyes open more to the beauty of nature, as Native Americans know, and he uses every aspect of it. He becomes more and more mestizo as the plot unfolds. He sees the borderlands, connects with the Natives, and helps them as they help him. Glass has grown to understand each side. He questioned the predispositions, and now he has to figure out for himself what he does next. In the end, he realizes violence is not the answer and it  won’t bring his son back. All he can do is help others understand the predispositions, and help them see the borderlands.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico–United_States_border)

These Borderlands can be seen in the world of today as the borders of different countries. The border between Mexico and the United States is an example. Because I am Mexican-American, I am a person living in the borderlands just like Hugh Glass. I am not fully Mexican, or fully American, yet I can relate to each in different aspects of culture and language. I can see why migrating to the United States can be appealing, and I hear the oppositions of some here. Donald Trump our new president elect wants to build a wall, but what comes along with this? A wall would stop any real understanding of either side, and cause isolation. One does not have to be of mixed ancestry to become part mestizo, and see the borderlands, as is seen in Hugh Glass. It is necessary to become aware of the borderlands, and cross them; this way we can each grow in culture, opinion, and knowledge to let our inner mestizos out.

Sources:

Lazo. “Hugh Glass Mestizo: Borderlands for a New World.” Humanities Core. University California Irvine, Irvine.2 Nov 2016. Lecture.

The Revenant. Directed by Alejandro G. Iñárritu, performances by  Leonardo DiCaprio,  Tom Hardy,  Will Poulter, 20th Century Fox. 16 Dec. 2015

Word Count: 559

 

 

 

 

 

Overcoming Predispositions (Blog Post 5)

Colonization and Imperialism paved the way for stereotypes, and the categorization of peoples. Through the conquering of different land and peoples, the hierarchies of people began, placing non-whites as lesser than the white man. This is evident through the exploitation of land, resources, and people in the colonies of the British empire and others. These hierarchies place distinctions between people that have never been thought of before, and is a breeding place for hate.

(https://pennstatebrazil.wordpress.com/2013/04/22/the-portuguese-colonization-of-brazil/)

In Waiting for the Barbarians, by J.M Coetzee, the narrator works as a magistrate for the empire (not named) in an outpost of one of its conquered territories. Here, he lives a placid life “on this lazy frontier, waiting for retire” (8). Although he has lived most of his life working for the empire without question, the introduction of Colonel Joll and a tortured barbarian girl raised questions of moral. The narrator began a repulsive and abusive relationship with the barbarian girl. He helps heal her wounds and tries to understand her, but at the same time he abuses his power over her. The more he tries to understand her, the more he questions the empire he is a part of. He wasn’t able to understand her and her views, because she was a barbarian and he was from the empire; they are from completely different places. Throughout the novel, Colonel Joll, the face of empire, became an enemy in the eyes of this man. The magistrate began to defend the barbarians, and began to view the empire scrutinizingly. The barbarians became an innocent child in his eyes, as characterized by the girl, and the men who tortured her were the empire. Through this thinking, the man wanted to help the girl, but in reality he wanted to help himself to free himself of the guilt that came with him knowing he, too, is part of the empire. He wanted to become the “One Just Man” who understands the evils of empire(113). He desired to  become aware of the  predispositions that were imbedded in him as part of the empire, and question them. Although he does question the empire and moral, he does nothing to help the barbarians at his frontier making him just as bad as the empire.

Similarly in the United States, we have been placed in a breeding place of hate where one has to become aware of the ideologies that they have been raised with. There seems to be two opposing groups: liberals against conservatives, and vice versa. It is necessary to know the views of both, to hear each other out to hopefully come to an agreement or compromise to live in truce. While it seems to liberals that they are oppressed, and the conservatives see liberals as a threat to their security, both need to communicate. It is necessary to question, and argue to reach a grounds of understanding for both parties; violence is not an option.

In Waiting for the Barbarians, the magistrate wants to become a sort of martyr that shows his benevolence. However, if anyone from either side, liberal or conservative, were to become a martyr it would bring along hate. They would use a martyr to show the violence of the other group, and justify their own hate along with it. Becoming a martyr for a group is a simple solution that would either be ignored, or used as a justification for hate among two groups. Therefore, the only option to these strong oppositions would be to listen, question, and understand how and why every person thinks the way they do. After this, we will come to the root of the problem and solve it once and for all.

Sources:

Coetzee, J. M.. Waiting For The Barbarians. London : Secker & Warburg, 1980. Print.

Word Count: 627

 

Evolution of Human Nature (Blog Post 4)

Evolution in the eyes of most would be seen as a positive progression to a better future, yet  in the eyes of Jean-Jacques Rousseau it is a step back. When I think of evolution, I don’t think of man evolving from an ape to what we are now, but of a man evolving in his way of thinking. I think of the tools made, and agriculture for a smarter way of life. However,  Rousseau, being the contrarian he is, believes that those tools make humans idle and corrupt. Rousseau argues that “all the progress of the human species continually moves away from its primitive state, the more we accumulate new knowledge, the more we deprive ourselves of the means of acquiring the most important knowledge of all” (39). He praises the primitive man, and criticizes the evolved man.

Rousseau argues that through the arts and sciences we become weak. As he travels through different continents, Rousseau sees different peoples such as the Hottentots who are the closest group of peoples to our original blank slate. He sees them as agile hunters able to live of the land with no use of tools. At the same time, he sees how we need clothes to keep warm, and how we depend on our inventions to live. This comparison draws him to the conclusion that the primitive man is a superior man, able to live a life free of stress. Rousseau believes that we complicate our life more than we have to with philosophy, arts, and sciences.

(http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2013/06/the-khoikhoi-hottentots-first-people-of.html)

At our blank state of birth we are gentle, peaceful, and full of pity. As I learned from professor Steintrager, the hierarchies of man began when the rich man came and proposed a mutually beneficial pact that would protect from oppression and ambitions. This “pact” was merely created to keep the rich and poor as they are. Exploitation, and war came after the oppression of the people who believed the words of the pact. Man became ambitious to gain land, money, and power. They saw those conquered as barbarians who knew nothing, yet they lived freely of the land showing they knew enough to live a life of bliss. Now, man is as ambitious as ever refusing to help others in need as long as they make it through with more than those around him. We are in constant competition, striving to be at the top of the hierarchy.

Sources:

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, and Donald A. Cress. Basic Political Writings. Indianapolis, IN:              Hackett, 2011. Print.

Steintrager. “Rousseau’s Second Discourse: origin of inequality.” Humanities Core. Univerity of California, Irvine, Irvine. 2 Nov. 2016. Lecture.

 

Word Count: 420

 

Memento Mori (Blog Post 3)

(The Course of Empire: Consummation, by Thomas Cole.)

Paintings are often used as a timeline of history. Thomas Cole painted The Course Empire as a timeline of an imaginary empire. He envisioned the empire before, during, and after its fall. Before, there were overgrown forests, and uncivilized peoples with little progression.  Soon after, the empire began to grow from nothing. Cole painted the empire at its prime, with lavish goods and temples from one end to the other. Soon after, he envisioned the empire’s inevitable fall and destruction. Thomas Cole remembers Memento Mori; everything that lives, dies.

Cole’s painting Consummation from the series, shows the empire in its supreme state. It’s surrounded by finery, and luxury. However, this luxury is what brings the empire to its fall.  The painting would be considered beautiful in certain aspects, yet it doesn’t strike me as such. The imaginary empire is cluttered with buildings making it almost painful to look at. The people in the painting are clustered together serving their emperor, but look clustered almost at the brink of falling into the lake. This lake at the center of the painting is a reflection of empire. Mirrors are held as empty reflections, since they are a symbol of vanitas, a reminder of inevitable death. Cole’s depiction of the empires fall raises the assumption that he does not agree with progression, just like Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Both argue progression to be regression, and hold undisturbed nature to be the highest form of beauty. Rousseau goes as far to say “the sciences and the arts owe their birth to our vices”(14). Man-made beauty doesn’t last.

(https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/may/30/most-coral-dead-in-central-section-of-great-barrier-reef-surveys-reveal)

Nowadays, we surround ourselves with man-made, beautiful structures at the cost of tearing down forests, and nature. I would argue that we at our peek of empire, and its fall will inevitably come. Nature is seen as an obstacle, or as a bountiful resource, but isn’t appreciated as is. We have been ignoring the warnings that come from abusing nature through the years, and have yet to put an emphasis on helping the planet heal. Now the Great Barrier Reef is under tremendous amounts of stress, because of our selfish need for growth.  The reef slowly dying, and the temperatures rising are the warnings we are ignoring. We would much rather have a lit, air conditioned room. However, once this empire of ours falls nature will have no issue reclaiming its rightful land. Thomas Cole’s The Course of Empire can be seen as the future that awaits the world.

(The Course of Empire: Desolation, by Thomas Cole.)

Sources:

Micheal Slezak. theguardian, Most coral dead in many parts of central section of Great    Barrier Reef, surveys find. 29 May 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/may/30/most-coral-dead-in-central-section-of-great-barrier-reef-surveys-reveal

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, and Donald A. Cress. Basic Political Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub., 1987. Print.

Word Count: 429